The future of Jewish schooling in the United Kingdom:
Primary and secondary school education in the United Kingdom

The UK system of school education
Religion in UK schools
The provision of Judaic education and religious worship 

The roots of the present British national school system reach back to the early nineteenth century when the British and Foreign School Society and the National Society--which from 1833 onwards received increasing contributions from the state--established a series of voluntary schools.(1) By the second half of the nineteenth century the voluntary system was clearly failing to reach children in many areas, and so the 1870 Education Act instituting compulsory primary education was passed. This provided for the establishment of state-run 'board schools' wherever voluntary provision was inadequate. In the 1944 Education Act, provision was made for voluntary schools to become either 'aided' or 'controlled', with the latter handing over much of their independence in return for greater state funding. For voluntary-aided schools, government grants of 50 per cent were available to schools for building repairs, improvements and extensions, a figure that was increased to 75 per cent in 1959, 80 per cent in 1967, 85 per cent in 1974, and which the present government is now proposing to increase to 90 per cent (see Chapter 1). The current state educational system reflects these historical traditions, together with the imprint of a number of more recent government initiatives to try and improve educational standards. In theory, there is a wide-- although often confusing--range of potential options from which parents can choose. In order to make sense of the performance data and key strategic issues detailed in the following chapters, an understanding of this educational system is needed.

The UK system of school education

The system of schooling in the United Kingdom varies in the different 'home' countries of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales. In particular, Scotland has always had a completely separate education system, dating back to before 1707 and the Act of Union with England. Since, moreover, virtually all Jewish day schools are in England--there is none in Wales and Northern Ireland and only one state primary school in Scotland--the educational system described here refers to England only.

Table 2.1 Different types of schools

Education is compulsory from ages 5 to 16, although parents are legally permitted to educate their children at home rather than in formal schools.(2) As Table 2.1 shows, under the age of 5, children may be educated in nurseries or kindergartens; from ages 5 to 11 they are usually taught in primary schools (often divided between infant and junior schools); and from ages 11 to 16 or 18 they are taught in secondary schools. Following formal school education, individuals may go on to tertiary education, including universities, further education colleges or, for many strictly Orthodox students, yeshivot or seminaries.(3) Children with particular special educational needs may be educated in separate 'special' schools, although the vast majority of children with SEN are integrated into mainstream schools (see Chapter 8).

Table 2.2 Main categories of schools 

As well as differences in types of schools, there are also major differences in categories of schools in terms of how they are funded. For the purposes of this report, the key distinctions are between voluntary-aided and independent schools (for an explanation of other categories of schools, see Table 2.2). Voluntary-aided schools are part of the state sector, but land and buildings are usually owned by a charitable foundation and the governing body employs the school's staff and has primary responsibility for admission arrangements. Independent schools, which are not covered by the same legislation as the state sector, can be divided between 'association' and 'non-association' schools. Association schools are those under the remit of the Independent Schools Council (ISC)--the body that oversees 1,300 elite private schools-- and have regular inspections via the Independent Schools Inspectorate (ISI). Non-association schools, incorporating the vast majority of Jewish independent schools that are strictly Orthodox in outlook, are still subject to regular inspections from Her Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI) (see Chapter 7). Note that there is only one Jewish ISC school, Immanuel College, located in Hertfordshire, north of the Greater London boundary. However, Polack's House, which forms part of the independent Bristol 'public' school, Clifton College, also caters specifically for Jewish pupils.(4)

In addition to differences between the various types and categories of schools, it is also important to note differences in admission criteria. Overall problems relating to admission criteria are discussed in the following chapter; however, on a national level, the terminology most often used--particularly at secondary level--is comprehensive, modern, selective and non-selective:

• Comprehensive: takes all pupils, regardless of ability, aptitude and whether they have been selected for a place at a selective school.
• Modern: takes pupils, regardless of ability or aptitude, who have not been selected for a place at a selective school.
• Non-selective: independent school that takes pupils usually regardless of their ability or aptitude.
• Selective: takes pupils depending on their ability or aptitude, also known as grammar schools.

Table 2.3 Key stage system

Following the 1988 Education Act, state-sector schools in England and Wales follow a National Curriculum, designed to standardize teaching. In particular, provision was made for a series of national tests known as 'key stages' or Standard Attainment Tests (SATs). At primary level, children are tested at age 7 (key stage one) in reading, writing and mathematics, and at age 11 (key stage two) in English, mathematics and science. At secondary level, they are tested at age 14 (key stage three), also in English, mathematics and science, and at age 16 (key stage four) when pupils take General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examinations. Pupils at key stage four may also take General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs), which are more vocational than GCSEs. 

Beyond the compulsory age of education at 16, pupils may choose to take General Certificate of Education (GCE) examinations, which consist of GCE A (Advanced) levels and AS (Advanced Supplementary) levels. A level examinations are usually taken over two years, AS levels are completed in one year. Students may also choose to take Advanced GNVQs (AGNVQs). A and AS level passes are the normal requirements for entry into tertiary (particularly university) education.(5)

In terms of the key stage system, children are expected to achieve certain levels of attainment, and the results of each school are made public: children at age 7 are expected to achieve level two; at age 11 to achieve level four; and at age 14 to achieve level five or six. The key stage system and the expected levels of attainment are outlined in Table 2.3 and Figure 2.

Religion in UK schools

The provision of religious education and the overall system of schooling in the United Kingdom are, and have always been, inextricably interlinked. The stated aim of the British and Foreign School Society, which was one of the key foundations for the national educational system established in 1870, was to 'promote the education of the labouring and manufacturing classes of society of every religious persuasion'.(6) Religious instruction in these schools was confined to scripture and 'general Christian principles'. The other key founding body, the National Society, was designed to 'promote the education of the poor in the principles of the established church' (i.e. the Church of England); entrance to these schools was conditional on a willingness to receive denominational religious instruction and attend an Anglican church on Sundays.(7) After the 1870 Education Act, voluntary schools were permitted to continue denominational religious teaching, while board schools could choose whether or not to include religious teaching, although any such instruction was supposed to be non-denominational. 

In the 1944 Education Act, the fact that the churches owned a high proportion of the country's secondary schools gave them immense influence as the government attempted to increase educational provision with universal secondary education. The Act made school worship and religious instruction obligatory in all 'county' schools (the old board schools), specifying that it had to be in accordance with a non-denominational 'agreed syllabus'. The syllabuses were, and continue to be, written by an Agreed Syllabus Conference, consisting of four components: the Church of England, other religious denominations, the local education authority (LEA) and teacher associations. LEAs could also choose to establish a Standing Advisory Council for Religious Education (SACRE) to advise them on matters connected with religious instruction, methods of teaching, and provision of teachers and resources. Note, however, that the 1944 Act specifically gave entitlement for parents to withdraw their children from religious instruction and worship from all state schools if they wished.(8)

 Religious instruction and worship were also made obligatory in voluntary and controlled schools. Voluntary-aided schools retained the right to provide denominational religious instruction and worship. Controlled schools were to give religious instruction according to the agreed syllabus, although parents could ask for denominational teaching 'during not more than two periods each week', and the daily act of worship could be denominational in character. Jewish and Catholic schools almost entirely rejected controlled status. Many Church of England schools, however, did opt for this status because of increased financial support from the state and a belief by some that the Christian presence in education was best preserved through non-denominational teaching in state schools.(9)

The provision of Judaic education and religious worship

In voluntary-aided Jewish schools, religious instruction is typically provided through Jewish studies classes. These are typically a part of the core curriculum, and parents pay a voluntary contribution towards the 'Jewish' aspects of the schooling: in JFS, for example, this currently amounts to £250 per term. Because state-sector schools have to follow the strict guidelines of the National Curriculum, the amount of time available for Jewish studies lessons is necessarily limited in some Jewish schools to around four or five lessons a week (around two hours). Other schools have deliberate policies of trying to integrate Judaic and secular subjects throughout the syllabus so as to try and obtain a more 'global' Jewish environment. A number of more religious schools have, however, chosen to extend the school day by an hour or more so as to provide additional time for Judaic teaching. These schools may also have additional Jewish studies classes on Sunday mornings.

The content of Judaic subjects taught obviously varies according to whether schools are primary or secondary, as well as to their ethos and religious affiliation. For mainstream schools at primary level, children are typically taught to read (though not translate) biblical Hebrew so that they can follow religious services in the synagogue. They are also taught about laws and customs, Jewish history and the state of Israel; schools also teach and celebrate the various Jewish festivals throughout the year. Some schools, especially those with a Zionist ethos, also teach modern Hebrew (Ivrit) as a second language. 

At secondary level, some schools include a Judaic education that is heavily based on reading and analysing the sacred foundational texts of religious Judaism. Other schools concentrate more on the morals and values of Judaism. Schools are also likely to include extracurricular informal Jewish activities, such as seminars, residential weekends (known as shabatonim) and visits to Israel or to Holocaust sites in Poland. Note also that in addition to the wearing of a school uniform, male pupils are expected to wear kippot (head coverings), and many also insist that boys wear tzitsit (literally 'fringes', a religious garment worn under the shirt). The normal British school uniform is deemed sufficiently 'modest' for girls.

At GCSE level, there are three specifically Judaic examinations: Religious Studies: Judaism; Biblical Hebrew; and Modern Hebrew. At A level, there are examinations only in Biblical Hebrew and Modern Hebrew. The number of entrants and the results of these examinations are detailed and discussed in Chapter 5.

Voluntary-aided Jewish state schools also have assemblies that include a Jewish dimension. JFS provides voluntary religious services including shacharit (morning prayers) and minchah (afternoon prayers), although many schools incorporate prayers as a key part of the school day, with special Sabbath assemblies on Fridays. These differences reflect the ethos of each school, as well as the backgrounds of the children who attend. Nonetheless, although the 1944 Education Act safeguards parents' rights to withdraw their children from religious instruction and worship, at least one school prospectus for a voluntary Jewish day school states that there are 'no arrangements for withdrawal'. 

Finally, note that independent, private fee-paying schools are not subject to the restrictions of the National Curriculum. In a number of strictly Orthodox schools the balance between Judaic and general subjects is weighted heavily in favour of the former, with only a few hours a week of non-Judaic subjects taught. The teaching of children in strictly Orthodox schools is examined in Chapter 7.

Notes

1 Leslie J. Francis, Religion in the Primary School: Partnership between Church and State? (London: Collins 1987). [back]

2 Note that schools by legal definition must have five or more full-time pupils, and must register with the DfEE under the terms of the 1996 Education Act (which follows the original wording of the 1944 Education Act). [back]

3 Yeshivot are institutes of higher learning for males; seminaries are for females. An analysis of yeshivot and seminaries does not form part of this report [back] .

4 Note that statistics for Clifton College are not included in the examination results detailed in Chapter 4. [back]

5 Note that the post-GCSE examination system is currently undergoing major changes. The government has effectively split the old A level into two parts, the AS and the A2, obliging all students who spend the full two years in sixth form to take both exams. From 2002, a new Advanced Extension (AE) examination will also be introduced. [back]

6 Francis, 12. [back]

7 Ibid. [back]

8 See Edwin Cox and Josephine Cairns, Reforming Religious Education: The Religious Clauses of the 1988 Education Reform Act (London: Kogan Page 1989); Ruth-Anne Lenga, Michael Totterdel and Vanessa Ogden, 'Religious education: soul-searching in an era of "supercomplexity"', in Ashley Kent (ed.), School Subjects Teaching: Future and History of the Curriculum (London: Kogan Page 2000); and David Rose, 'A survey of representative groups on SACRE', Journal of Contemporary Religion, vol. 13, no. 3, 1998, 383-93. [back]

9 Francis. [back]